Research progress on retinal disease modeling using retinal organoids_Chinese Journal of Ocular Fundus Diseases

Authors：

Zhang Yanli ^1,2 , Qiao Yilin ^3,4 , Zhu Shilu ^3,4 , Zhang Shian ¹ , Chen Yijing ¹ , Sun Mingzhai ^3,4 ,  Mao Jianbo ^1,2

1. Center for Rehailitation Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China;
2. School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310012, China;
3. School of Biomedical Engineering, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China;
4. Suzhou Institute for Advanced Research, University of Science and Technology of China, Suzhou 215123, China;

Corresponding?author：

Mao Jianbo, Email: rocket222@sina.com

Keywords：

Retinal organoids; Disease models; Drug screening; Review

DOI：

10.3760/cma.j.cn511434-20250613-00269

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Retinal degenerative disease (RD) is the main cause of visual impairment. Traditional models have limitations and treatment options are limited. Retinal organoids (RO), as an emerging 3D culture technology, can differentiate stem cells in vitro to form multi-layered tissues that highly simulate the structure and function of the retina, bringing a breakthrough approach to RD research. At present, this technology has been successfully applied to the model construction of diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa, retinoblastoma and Leber congenital amaurosis. Based on patient-specific RO, the study revealed pathological mechanisms such as ciliary defects and protein aggregation caused by mutations, and verified the potential of gene editing, adeno-associated virus therapy and targeted drugs. Meanwhile, RO has demonstrated efficient and reliable evaluation capabilities in drug screening. Despite still facing challenges such as long cycles, high costs, and a lack of vascular and immune cells, future research will focus on optimizing the culture system, constructing vascularized and immunized organoids, and promoting clinical transformation. At present, RO transplantation has demonstrated safety and repair potential in animals and preliminary clinical trials, laying a foundation for its application in retinal regeneration and precision medicine.

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5.	Hasegawa Y, Takata N, Okuda S, et al. Emergence of dorsal-ventral polarity in ESC-derived retinal tissue[J]. Development, 2016, 143(21): 3895-906. DOI: 10.1242/dev.134601.
6.	Eiraku M, Watanabe K, Matsuo-Takasaki M, et al. Self-organized formation of polarized cortical tissues from ESC and its active manipulation by extrinsic signals[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2008, 3(5): 519-532. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.09.002.
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15.	Deng WL, Gao ML, Lei XL, et al. Gene correction reverses ciliopathy and photoreceptor loss in iPSC-derived retinal organoids from retinitis pigmentosa patients[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2018, 10(4): 1267-1281. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.02.003.
16.	Boon N, Lu X, Andriessen CA, et al. Characterization and AAV-mediated CRB gene augmentation in human-derived CRB1(KO) and CRB1(KO)CRB2(+/-) retinal organoids[J/OL]. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev, 2023, 31: 101128[2023-10-10]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37886604/. DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2023.101128.
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18.	Kanber D, Woestefeld J, D?pper H, et al. RB1-negative retinal organoids display proliferation of cone photoreceptors and loss of retinal differentiation[J/OL]. Cancers (Basel), 2022, 14(9): 2166[2022-04-26]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35565295/. DOI: 10.3390/cancers14092166.
19.	Rozanska A, Cerna-Chavez R, Queen R, et al. pRB-depleted pluripotent stem cell retinal organoids recapitulate cell state transitions of retinoblastoma development and suggest an important role for pRB in retinal cell differentiation[J]. Stem Cells Transl Med, 2022, 11(4): 415-433. DOI: 10.1093/stcltm/szac008.
20.	Liu H, Zhang Y, Zhang YY, et al. Human embryonic stem cell-derived organoid retinoblastoma reveals a cancerous origin[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2020, 117(52): 33628-33638. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2011780117.
21.	Chirco KR, Chew S, Moore AT, et al. Allele-specific gene editing to rescue dominant CRX-associated LCA7 phenotypes in a retinal organoid model[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2021, 16(11): 2690-2702. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.09.007.
22.	Parfitt DA, Lane A, Ramsden CM, et al. Identification and correction of mechanisms underlying inherited blindness in human iPSC-derived optic cups[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2016, 18(6): 769-781. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2016.03.021.
23.	Leung A, Sacristan-Reviriego A, Perdig?o PRL, et al. Investigation of PTC124-mediated translational readthrough in a retinal organoid model of AIPL1-associated Leber congenital amauROis[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2022, 17(10): 2187-2202. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2022.08.005.
24.	Lukovic D, Artero Castro A, Delgado AB, et al. Human iPSC derived disease model of MERTK-associated retinitis pigmentosa[J/OL]. Sci Rep, 2015, 5: 12910[2015-08-11]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26263531/. DOI: 10.1038/srep12910.
25.	Lane A, Jovanovic K, Shortall C, et al. Modeling and rescue of RP2 retinitis pigmentosa using iPSC-derived retinal organoids[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2020, 15(1): 67-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2020.05.007.
26.	Sladen PE, Naeem A, Adefila-Ideozu T, et al. AAV-RPGR gene therapy rescues opsin mislocalisation in a human retinal organoid model of RPGR-associated X-linked retinitis pigmentosa[J/OL]. Int J Mol Sci, 2024, 25(3): 1839[2024-02-02]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38339118/. DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031839.
27.	Georgiou M, Yang C, Atkinson R, et al. Activation of autophagy reverses progressive and deleterious protein aggregation in PRPF31 patient-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelium cells[J/OL]. Clin Transl Med, 2022, 12(3): e759[2022-03-01]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35297555/. DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.759.
28.	Norrie JL, Nityanandam A, Lai K, et al. Retinoblastoma from human stem cell-derived retinal organoids[J/OL]. Nat Commun, 2021, 12(1): 4535[2021-07-27]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34315877/. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24781-7.
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30.	Sacristan-Reviriego A, Bellingham J, Prodromou C, et al. The integrity and organization of the human AIPL1 functional domains is critical for its role as a HSP90-dependent co-chaperone for rod PDE6[J]. Hum Mol Genet, 2017, 26(22): 4465-4480. DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx334.
31.	Srimongkol A, Laosillapacharoen N, Saengwimol D, et al. Sunitinib efficacy with minimal toxicity in patient-derived retinoblastoma organoids[J/OL]. J Exp Clin Cancer Res, 2023, 42(1): 39[2023-02-01]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36726110/. DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02608-1.
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37.	McLelland BT, Lin B, Mathur A, et al. Transplanted hESC-derived retina organoid sheets differentiate, integrate, and improve visual function in retinal degenerate rats[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2018, 59(6): 2586-2603. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-23646.
38.	Hirami Y, Mandai M, Sugita S, et al. Safety and stable survival of stem-cell-derived retinal organoid for 2 years in patients with retinitis pigmentosa[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2023, 30(12): 1585-1596. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.11.004.

1. Xu H, Chen M. Immune response in retinal degenerative diseases-time to rethink?[J/OL]. Prog Neurobiol, 2022, 219: 102350[2022-09-06]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36075351/. DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102350.
2. Pan D, Zhang X, Jin K, et al. CRX haploinsufficiency compromises photoreceptor precursor translocation and differentiation in human retinal organoids[J/OL]. Stem Cell Res Ther, 2023, 14(1): 346[2023-12-05]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38049871/. DOI: 10.1186/s13287-023-03590-3.
3. Kuwahara A, Nakano T, Eiraku M. Generation of a three-dimensional retinal tissue from self-organizing human ESC culture[J]. Methods Mol Biol, 2017, 1597: 17-29. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6949-4_2.
4. Eiraku M, Takata N, Ishibashi H, et al. Self-organizing optic-cup morphogenesis in three-dimensional culture[J]. Nature, 2011, 472(7341): 51-56. DOI: 10.1038/nature09941.
5. Hasegawa Y, Takata N, Okuda S, et al. Emergence of dorsal-ventral polarity in ESC-derived retinal tissue[J]. Development, 2016, 143(21): 3895-906. DOI: 10.1242/dev.134601.
6. Eiraku M, Watanabe K, Matsuo-Takasaki M, et al. Self-organized formation of polarized cortical tissues from ESC and its active manipulation by extrinsic signals[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2008, 3(5): 519-532. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.09.002.
7. Nakano T, Ando S, Takata N, et al. Self-formation of optic cups and storable stratified neural retina from human ESC[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2012, 10(6): 771-785. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2012.05.009.
8. Zhong X, Gutierrez C, Xue T, et al. Generation of three-dimensional retinal tissue with functional photoreceptors from human iPSC[J/OL]. Nat Commun, 2014, 5: 4047[2014-06-10]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24915161/. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5047.
9. Li G, Xie B, He L, et al. Generation of retinal organoids with mature rods and cones from urine-derived human induced pluripotent stem cells[J/OL]. Stem Cells Int, 2018, 2018: 4968658[2018-06-13]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30008752/. DOI: 10.1155/2018/4968658.
10. Luo Z, Zhong X, Li K, et al. An optimized system for effective derivation of three-dimensional retinal tissue via wnt signaling regulation[J]. Stem Cells, 2018, 36(11): 1709-1722. DOI: 10.1002/stem.2890.
11. Reichman S, Slembrouck A, Gagliardi G, et al. Generation of storable retinal organoids and retinal pigmented epithelium from adherent human iPS cells in xeno-free and feeder-free conditions[J]. Stem Cells, 2017, 35(5): 1176-1188. DOI: 10.1002/stem.2586.
12. Slembrouck-Brec A, Rodrigues A, Rabesandratana O, et al. Reprogramming of adult retinal Müller glial cells into human-induced pluripotent stem cells as an efficient source of retinal cells[J/OL]. Stem Cells Int, 2019, 2019: 7858796[2019-07-15]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31396286/. DOI: 10.1155/2019/7858796.
13. Méjécase C, Zhou Y, Owen N, et al. Dominant RDH12-retinitis pigmentosa impairs photoreceptor development and implicates cone involvement in retinal organoids[J/OL]. Front Cell Dev Biol, 2025, 13: 1511066[2025-04-29]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40365019/. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2025.1511066.
14. Navinés-Ferrer A, Pomares E. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and rhodopsin accumulation in an organoid model of retinitis pigmentosa carrying a RHO pathogenic variant[J/OL]. Stem Cell Res Ther, 2025, 16(1): 71[2025-02-14]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39948682/. DOI: 10.1186/s13287-025-04199-4.
15. Deng WL, Gao ML, Lei XL, et al. Gene correction reverses ciliopathy and photoreceptor loss in iPSC-derived retinal organoids from retinitis pigmentosa patients[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2018, 10(4): 1267-1281. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.02.003.
16. Boon N, Lu X, Andriessen CA, et al. Characterization and AAV-mediated CRB gene augmentation in human-derived CRB1(KO) and CRB1(KO)CRB2(+/-) retinal organoids[J/OL]. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev, 2023, 31: 101128[2023-10-10]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37886604/. DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2023.101128.
17. Boon N, Lu X, Andriessen CA, et al. AAV-mediated gene augmentation therapy of CRB1 patient-derived retinal organoids restores the histological and transcriptional retinal phenotype[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2023, 18(5): 1123-1137. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2023.03.014.
18. Kanber D, Woestefeld J, D?pper H, et al. RB1-negative retinal organoids display proliferation of cone photoreceptors and loss of retinal differentiation[J/OL]. Cancers (Basel), 2022, 14(9): 2166[2022-04-26]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35565295/. DOI: 10.3390/cancers14092166.
19. Rozanska A, Cerna-Chavez R, Queen R, et al. pRB-depleted pluripotent stem cell retinal organoids recapitulate cell state transitions of retinoblastoma development and suggest an important role for pRB in retinal cell differentiation[J]. Stem Cells Transl Med, 2022, 11(4): 415-433. DOI: 10.1093/stcltm/szac008.
20. Liu H, Zhang Y, Zhang YY, et al. Human embryonic stem cell-derived organoid retinoblastoma reveals a cancerous origin[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2020, 117(52): 33628-33638. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2011780117.
21. Chirco KR, Chew S, Moore AT, et al. Allele-specific gene editing to rescue dominant CRX-associated LCA7 phenotypes in a retinal organoid model[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2021, 16(11): 2690-2702. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.09.007.
22. Parfitt DA, Lane A, Ramsden CM, et al. Identification and correction of mechanisms underlying inherited blindness in human iPSC-derived optic cups[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2016, 18(6): 769-781. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2016.03.021.
23. Leung A, Sacristan-Reviriego A, Perdig?o PRL, et al. Investigation of PTC124-mediated translational readthrough in a retinal organoid model of AIPL1-associated Leber congenital amauROis[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2022, 17(10): 2187-2202. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2022.08.005.
24. Lukovic D, Artero Castro A, Delgado AB, et al. Human iPSC derived disease model of MERTK-associated retinitis pigmentosa[J/OL]. Sci Rep, 2015, 5: 12910[2015-08-11]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26263531/. DOI: 10.1038/srep12910.
25. Lane A, Jovanovic K, Shortall C, et al. Modeling and rescue of RP2 retinitis pigmentosa using iPSC-derived retinal organoids[J]. Stem Cell Reports, 2020, 15(1): 67-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2020.05.007.
26. Sladen PE, Naeem A, Adefila-Ideozu T, et al. AAV-RPGR gene therapy rescues opsin mislocalisation in a human retinal organoid model of RPGR-associated X-linked retinitis pigmentosa[J/OL]. Int J Mol Sci, 2024, 25(3): 1839[2024-02-02]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38339118/. DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031839.
27. Georgiou M, Yang C, Atkinson R, et al. Activation of autophagy reverses progressive and deleterious protein aggregation in PRPF31 patient-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelium cells[J/OL]. Clin Transl Med, 2022, 12(3): e759[2022-03-01]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35297555/. DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.759.
28. Norrie JL, Nityanandam A, Lai K, et al. Retinoblastoma from human stem cell-derived retinal organoids[J/OL]. Nat Commun, 2021, 12(1): 4535[2021-07-27]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34315877/. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24781-7.
29. Zhang P, Xu Z. The advancements in precision medicine for Leber congenital amauROis: breakthroughs from genetic diagnosis to therapy[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 2025, 70(6): 1205-1219. DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2025.04.005.
30. Sacristan-Reviriego A, Bellingham J, Prodromou C, et al. The integrity and organization of the human AIPL1 functional domains is critical for its role as a HSP90-dependent co-chaperone for rod PDE6[J]. Hum Mol Genet, 2017, 26(22): 4465-4480. DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx334.
31. Srimongkol A, Laosillapacharoen N, Saengwimol D, et al. Sunitinib efficacy with minimal toxicity in patient-derived retinoblastoma organoids[J/OL]. J Exp Clin Cancer Res, 2023, 42(1): 39[2023-02-01]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36726110/. DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02608-1.
32. Corral-Serrano JC, Sladen PE, Ottaviani D, et al. Eupatilin improves cilia defects in human CEP290 ciliopathy models[J/OL]. Cells, 2023, 12(12): 1575[2023-06-07]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37371046/. DOI: 10.3390/cells12121575.
33. Zhang Z, Xu Z, Yuan F, et al. Retinal organoid technology: where are we now?[J/OL]. Int J Mol Sci, 2021, 22(19): 10244[2021-09-23]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34638582/. DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910244.
34. Inagaki S, Nakamura S, Kuse Y, et al. Establishment of vascularized human retinal organoids from induced pluripotent stem cells[J/OL]. Stem Cells, 2025, 43(3): sxae093[2025-04-10]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40037696/. DOI: 10.1093/stmcls/sxae093.
35. Taylor J, Sellin J, Kuerschner L, et al. Generation of immune cell containing adipose organoids for in vitro analysis of immune metabolism[J/OL]. Sci Rep, 2020, 10(1): 21104[2020-12-03]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33273595/. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78015-9.
36. Xu J, Yu SJ, Jin ZB. Assembling retinal organoids with microglia[J]. J Vis Exp, 2024, 209: 1-7. DOI: 10.3791/67016.
37. McLelland BT, Lin B, Mathur A, et al. Transplanted hESC-derived retina organoid sheets differentiate, integrate, and improve visual function in retinal degenerate rats[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2018, 59(6): 2586-2603. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-23646.
38. Hirami Y, Mandai M, Sugita S, et al. Safety and stable survival of stem-cell-derived retinal organoid for 2 years in patients with retinitis pigmentosa[J]. Cell Stem Cell, 2023, 30(12): 1585-1596. DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.11.004.

Chinese Journal of Ocular Fundus Diseases

Latest ArticlesResearch progress on retinal disease modeling using retinal organoids

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