Progress in respiratory interventional therapies for early-stage lung cancer_Chinese Journal of Clinical Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

Authors：

LIU Qianshu , XU Yuan , QIN Yingzhi , CHEN Weixin , WANG Qixuan , LIU Hongsheng ,  GUO Chao

Department of Thoracic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

GUO Chao, Email: guochao@pumch.cn

Keywords：

Early-stage lung cancer; interventional pulmonology; ablation therapy; photodynamic therapy; radioactive seed implantation; robotic bronchoscopy; artificial intelligence; review

DOI：

10.7507/1007-4848.202510036

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

The widespread implementation of lung cancer screening has led to a marked increase in the detection of early-stage disease, underscoring the clinical need for less invasive treatment strategies. Interventional pulmonology has gained increasing prominence as an alternative for patients who are unsuitable candidates for surgery, leveraging real-time imaging guidance for accurate lesion localization and offering a spectrum of local ablative modalities. In this review, we outline the current evidence regarding thermal and non-thermal ablation, photodynamic therapy, and radioactive seed implantation in the management of early-stage lung cancer. Furthermore, we examine the emerging role of advanced navigation technologies and robotic bronchoscopy platforms in interventional pulmonology. Despite encouraging outcomes, several challenges remain, including heterogeneous treatment selection criteria, the lack of standardized protocols, and limited long-term survival data. Continued technological innovation and high-quality clinical studies are essential to optimize therapeutic efficacy and expand clinical indications. Interventional pulmonology is poised to contribute substantially to personalized and minimally invasive management of early-stage lung cancer, and its integration into multidisciplinary care pathways is likely to become increasingly important in the future.

1.	Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, et al. Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin, 2024, 74(3): 229-263.
2.	Riely GJ, Wood DE, Ettinger DS, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer, version 4. 2024. J Natl Compr Canc Netw, 2024, 22(4): 249-274.
3.	Dupuy DE, Goldberg SN. Image-guided radiofrequency tumor ablation: challenges and opportunities-part Ⅱ. J Vasc Interv Radiol, 2001, 12(10): 1135-1148.
4.	Lencioni R, Crocetti L, Cioni R, et al. Response to radiofrequency ablation of pulmonary tumours: a prospective, intention-to-treat, multicentre clinical trial (the RAPTURE study). Lancet Oncol, 2008, 9(7): 621-628.
5.	Palussière J, Chomy F, Savina M, et al. Radiofrequency ablation of stage ⅠA non-small cell lung cancer in patients ineligible for surgery: results of a prospective multicenter phase Ⅱ trial. J Cardiothorac Surg, 2018, 13(1): 91.
6.	Chan MV, Huo YR, Cao C, et al. Survival outcomes for surgical resection versus CT-guided percutaneous ablation for stage Ⅰ non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol, 2021, 31(7): 5421-5433.
7.	Ni Y, Huang G, Yang X, et al. Microwave ablation treatment for medically inoperable stageⅠ non-small cell lung cancers: long-term results. Eur Radiol, 2022, 32(8): 5616-5622.
8.	He JY, Yang L, Wang DD. Efficacy and safety of thermal ablation for patients with stage Ⅰnon-small cell lung cancer. Acad Radiol, 2024, 31(12): 5269-5279.
9.	Cui X, Zhao J, Lu R, et al. Microwave ablation after VATS in patients with multiple pulmonary nodules. J Cancer Res Ther, 2024, 20(7): 2029-2034.
10.	Huang B, Zhan C, Yu P, et al. Surgical outcomes of video-assisted thoracic surgery combined with computed tomography-guided microwave ablation for lung cancer presenting as multiple ground-glass opacities: a 5-year retrospective cohort study. Thorac Cancer, 2025, 16(14): e70120.
11.	Li B, Gao S, Mao J, et al. A retrospective study of microwave ablation and thoracoscopic surgery for multiple primary lung cancer: a propensity score matching analysis. Front Surg, 2025, 12: 1547048.
12.	Shao C, Yang M, Pan Y, et al. Case report: abscopal effect of microwave ablation in a patient with advanced squamous NSCLC and resistance to immunotherapy. Front Immunol, 2021, 12: 696749.
13.	Cao B, Liu M, Wang L, et al. Remodelling of tumour microenvironment by microwave ablation potentiates immunotherapy of AXL-specific CAR T cells against non-small cell lung cancer. Nat Commun, 2022, 13(1): 6203.
14.	Yamauchi Y, Izumi Y, Hashimoto K, et al. Percutaneous cryoablation for the treatment of medically inoperable stageⅠ non-small cell lung cancer. PLoS One, 2012, 7(3): e33223.
15.	S?nger JA, Graur A, Tahir I, et al. Outcomes following cryoablation of stage ⅠA non-small cell lung cancer in patients with and without interstitial lung disease: a retrospective single-center cohort study. Lung Cancer, 2023, 181: 107231.
16.	Moore W, Talati R, Bhattacharji P, et al. Five-year survival after cryoablation of stage Ⅰ non-small cell lung cancer in medically inoperable patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol, 2015, 26(3): 312-319.
17.	Gu C, Wang X, Wang K, et al. Cryoablation triggers type Ⅰ interferon-dependent antitumor immunity and potentiates immunotherapy efficacy in lung cancer. J Immunother Cancer, 2024, 12(1): e008386.
18.	Lin S, Liu D, Liang T, et al. Cryoablation-induced modulation of Treg cells and the TGF-β pathway in lung adenocarcinoma: implications for increased antitumor immunity. BMC Med, 2025, 23(1): 89.
19.	Wang L, Yang K, Xie X, et al. Cryoablation combined with programmed cell death protein 1 inhibitor pembrolizumab for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Chemotherapy, 2025, 70(3): 126-136.
20.	Gao Z, Teng J, Qiao R, et al. Efficacy and safety of a therapy combining sintilimab and chemotherapy with cryoablation in the first-line treatment of advanced nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer: protocol for a phaseⅡ, pilot, single-arm, single-center study. JMIR Res Protoc, 2024, 13: e64950.
21.	Yang K, Meng H, Guo C, et al. A meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of hot and cold contrast ablation for the treatment of lung cancer. Cryobiology, 2025, 121: 105334.
22.	Furuse K, Fukuoka M, Kato H, et al. A prospective phase Ⅱ study on photodynamic therapy with photofrinⅡ for centrally located early-stage lung cancer. J Clin Oncol, 1993, 11(10): 1852-1857.
23.	Detterbeck FC, Mazzone PJ, Naidich DP, et al. Screening for lung cancer. Chest, 2013, 143(5): e78S-e92S.
24.	中國抗癌協會腫瘤光動力治療專業委員會. 呼吸道腫瘤光動力治療臨床應用中國專家共識. 中華肺部疾病雜志(電子版), 2020, 13(1): 6-12.Chinese Anti-Cancer Association Committee of Photodynamic Therapy for Tumors. Chinese expert consensus on the clinical application of photodynamic therapy for respiratory tumors. Chin J Lung Dis (Electron Ed), 2020, 13(1): 6-12.
25.	Usuda J, Inoue T, Tsuchida T, et al. Clinical trial of photodynamic therapy for peripheral-type lung cancers using a new laser device in a pilot study. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2020, 30: 101698.
26.	Allison RR, Ferguson JS. Photodynamic therapy to a primary cancer of the peripheral lung: case report. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2022, 39: 103001.
27.	Moghissi K, Dixon K. Update on the current indications, practice and results of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in early central lung cancer (ECLC). Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2008, 5(1): 10-18.
28.	Tsuchida T, Matsumoto Y, Imabayashi T, et al. Photodynamic therapy can be safely performed with talaporfin sodium as a day treatment for central-type early-stage lung cancer. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2022, 38: 102836.
29.	Moghissi K, Dixon K, Thorpe JAC, et al. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) in early central lung cancer: a treatment option for patients ineligible for surgical resection. Thorax, 2007, 62(5): 391-395.
30.	Yang DY, Lin YP, Xue C, et al. CT-guided percutaneous implantation of ¹²⁵I particles in treatment of early lung cancer. J Thorac Dis, 2020, 12(10): 5996-6009.
31.	Wu C, Cao B, He G, et al. Stereotactic ablative brachytherapy versus percutaneous microwave ablation for early-stage non-small cell lung cancer: a multicenter retrospective study. BMC Cancer, 2024, 24(1): 304.
32.	Chen E, Wang J, Zhang H, et al. Analysis of the efficacy and safety of iodine-125 seeds implantation in the treatment of patients with inoperable early-stage non-small cell lung cancer. J Contemp Brachytherapy, 2021 13(3): 347-357.
33.	Latifi A, Roumeliotis M, Quirk S, et al. Brachytherapy seed placement by robotic bronchoscopy with cone beam computed tomography guidance for peripheral lung cancer: a human cadaveric feasibility pilot. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, 2025, 122(2): 392-398.
34.	Harris K, Puchalski J, Sterman D. Recent advances in bronchoscopic treatment of peripheral lung cancers. Chest, 2017, 151(3): 674-685.
35.	Zhong C, Chen E, Su Z, et al. Safety and efficacy of a novel transbronchial radiofrequency ablation system for lung tumours: one year follow-up from the first multi-centre large-scale clinical trial (BRONC-RFII). Respirology, 2025, 30(1): 51-61.
36.	Xie F, Zheng X, Xiao B, et al. Navigation bronchoscopy-guided radiofrequency ablation for nonsurgical peripheral pulmonary tumors. Respiration, 2017, 94(3): 293-298.
37.	Jiang N, Zhang L, Hao Y, et al. Combination of electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy-guided microwave ablation and thoracoscopic resection: an alternative for treatment of multiple pulmonary nodules. Thorac Cancer, 2020, 11(6): 1728-1733.
38.	Chen KC, Lee JM. Photodynamic therapeutic ablation for peripheral pulmonary malignancy via electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy localization in a hybrid operating room (OR): a pioneering study. J Thorac Dis, 2018, 10(s6): S725-S730.
39.	Zhang Q, Zheng K, Gu X, et al. Photodynamic therapy for primary tracheobronchial malignancy in Northwestern China. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2022, 37: 102701.
40.	Akulian JA, Molena D, Wahidi MM, et al. A direct comparative study of bronchoscopic navigation planning platforms for peripheral lung navigation: the ATLAS study. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol, 2022, 29(3): 171-178.
41.	De Leon H, Royalty K, Mingione L, et al. Device safety assessment of bronchoscopic microwave ablation of normal swine peripheral lung using robotic-assisted bronchoscopy. Int J Hyperthermia, 2023, 40(1): 2187743.
42.	Gruionu LG, Udri?toiu AL, Iacob AV, et al. Feasibility of a lung airway navigation system using fiber-Bragg shape sensing and artificial intelligence for early diagnosis of lung cancer. PLoS One, 2022, 17(12): e0277938.
43.	Wu Y, Zhao S, Qi S, et al. Two-stage contextual transformer-based convolutional neural network for airway extraction from CT images. Artif Intell Med, 2023, 143: 102637.
44.	Yuan Y, Tan W, Xu L, et al. An end-to-end multi-scale airway segmentation framework based on pulmonary CT image. Phys Med Biol, 2024, 69(11): 115027.
45.	Yan S, Li Y, Pan L, et al. The application of artificial intelligence for rapid on-site evaluation during flexible bronchoscopy. Front Oncol, 2024, 14: 1360831.
46.	Chen J, Zhang C, Xie J, et al. Automatic lung cancer subtyping using rapid on-site evaluation slides and serum biological markers. Respir Res, 2024, 25(1): 391.
47.	Tondo P, Palmiotti GA, D'Alagni G, et al. Reliability of rapid on-site evaluation achieved by remote sharing systems (E-ROSE) and AI algorithms (AI-ROSE) compared with the gold standard in the diagnosis of lung cancer. Respirology, 2025: resp. 70104.
48.	Thiboutot J, Yarmus LB, Maldonado F, et al. Identifying clinical research priorities in interventional pulmonary: an interventional pulmonology outcomes group (IPOG) working group report. Ann Am Thorac Soc, 2025, 22(9): 1281-1286.
49.	Piro R, Fontana M, Casalini E, et al. Cone beam CT augmented fluoroscopy allows safe and efficient diagnosis of a difficult lung nodule. BMC Pulm Med, 2021, 21(1): 327.
50.	Xu Y, Liu Q, Guo C, et al. A novel technique for microwave ablation of malignant pulmonary nodules: electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy with real-time digital subtraction angiography and computed tomography imaging guidance. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 2025, 67(3): ezaf063.
51.	Kohno M, Hashimoto R, Oiwa K, et al. Initial experience with transbronchial cryoablation as a novel local treatment for malignant peripheral lung lesions. BMJ Open Respir Res, 2018, 5(1): e000315.

1. Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, et al. Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin, 2024, 74(3): 229-263.
2. Riely GJ, Wood DE, Ettinger DS, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer, version 4. 2024. J Natl Compr Canc Netw, 2024, 22(4): 249-274.
3. Dupuy DE, Goldberg SN. Image-guided radiofrequency tumor ablation: challenges and opportunities-part Ⅱ. J Vasc Interv Radiol, 2001, 12(10): 1135-1148.
4. Lencioni R, Crocetti L, Cioni R, et al. Response to radiofrequency ablation of pulmonary tumours: a prospective, intention-to-treat, multicentre clinical trial (the RAPTURE study). Lancet Oncol, 2008, 9(7): 621-628.
5. Palussière J, Chomy F, Savina M, et al. Radiofrequency ablation of stage ⅠA non-small cell lung cancer in patients ineligible for surgery: results of a prospective multicenter phase Ⅱ trial. J Cardiothorac Surg, 2018, 13(1): 91.
6. Chan MV, Huo YR, Cao C, et al. Survival outcomes for surgical resection versus CT-guided percutaneous ablation for stage Ⅰ non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol, 2021, 31(7): 5421-5433.
7. Ni Y, Huang G, Yang X, et al. Microwave ablation treatment for medically inoperable stageⅠ non-small cell lung cancers: long-term results. Eur Radiol, 2022, 32(8): 5616-5622.
8. He JY, Yang L, Wang DD. Efficacy and safety of thermal ablation for patients with stage Ⅰnon-small cell lung cancer. Acad Radiol, 2024, 31(12): 5269-5279.
9. Cui X, Zhao J, Lu R, et al. Microwave ablation after VATS in patients with multiple pulmonary nodules. J Cancer Res Ther, 2024, 20(7): 2029-2034.
10. Huang B, Zhan C, Yu P, et al. Surgical outcomes of video-assisted thoracic surgery combined with computed tomography-guided microwave ablation for lung cancer presenting as multiple ground-glass opacities: a 5-year retrospective cohort study. Thorac Cancer, 2025, 16(14): e70120.
11. Li B, Gao S, Mao J, et al. A retrospective study of microwave ablation and thoracoscopic surgery for multiple primary lung cancer: a propensity score matching analysis. Front Surg, 2025, 12: 1547048.
12. Shao C, Yang M, Pan Y, et al. Case report: abscopal effect of microwave ablation in a patient with advanced squamous NSCLC and resistance to immunotherapy. Front Immunol, 2021, 12: 696749.
13. Cao B, Liu M, Wang L, et al. Remodelling of tumour microenvironment by microwave ablation potentiates immunotherapy of AXL-specific CAR T cells against non-small cell lung cancer. Nat Commun, 2022, 13(1): 6203.
14. Yamauchi Y, Izumi Y, Hashimoto K, et al. Percutaneous cryoablation for the treatment of medically inoperable stageⅠ non-small cell lung cancer. PLoS One, 2012, 7(3): e33223.
15. S?nger JA, Graur A, Tahir I, et al. Outcomes following cryoablation of stage ⅠA non-small cell lung cancer in patients with and without interstitial lung disease: a retrospective single-center cohort study. Lung Cancer, 2023, 181: 107231.
16. Moore W, Talati R, Bhattacharji P, et al. Five-year survival after cryoablation of stage Ⅰ non-small cell lung cancer in medically inoperable patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol, 2015, 26(3): 312-319.
17. Gu C, Wang X, Wang K, et al. Cryoablation triggers type Ⅰ interferon-dependent antitumor immunity and potentiates immunotherapy efficacy in lung cancer. J Immunother Cancer, 2024, 12(1): e008386.
18. Lin S, Liu D, Liang T, et al. Cryoablation-induced modulation of Treg cells and the TGF-β pathway in lung adenocarcinoma: implications for increased antitumor immunity. BMC Med, 2025, 23(1): 89.
19. Wang L, Yang K, Xie X, et al. Cryoablation combined with programmed cell death protein 1 inhibitor pembrolizumab for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Chemotherapy, 2025, 70(3): 126-136.
20. Gao Z, Teng J, Qiao R, et al. Efficacy and safety of a therapy combining sintilimab and chemotherapy with cryoablation in the first-line treatment of advanced nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer: protocol for a phaseⅡ, pilot, single-arm, single-center study. JMIR Res Protoc, 2024, 13: e64950.
21. Yang K, Meng H, Guo C, et al. A meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of hot and cold contrast ablation for the treatment of lung cancer. Cryobiology, 2025, 121: 105334.
22. Furuse K, Fukuoka M, Kato H, et al. A prospective phase Ⅱ study on photodynamic therapy with photofrinⅡ for centrally located early-stage lung cancer. J Clin Oncol, 1993, 11(10): 1852-1857.
23. Detterbeck FC, Mazzone PJ, Naidich DP, et al. Screening for lung cancer. Chest, 2013, 143(5): e78S-e92S.
24. 中國抗癌協會腫瘤光動力治療專業委員會. 呼吸道腫瘤光動力治療臨床應用中國專家共識. 中華肺部疾病雜志(電子版), 2020, 13(1): 6-12.Chinese Anti-Cancer Association Committee of Photodynamic Therapy for Tumors. Chinese expert consensus on the clinical application of photodynamic therapy for respiratory tumors. Chin J Lung Dis (Electron Ed), 2020, 13(1): 6-12.
25. Usuda J, Inoue T, Tsuchida T, et al. Clinical trial of photodynamic therapy for peripheral-type lung cancers using a new laser device in a pilot study. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2020, 30: 101698.
26. Allison RR, Ferguson JS. Photodynamic therapy to a primary cancer of the peripheral lung: case report. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2022, 39: 103001.
27. Moghissi K, Dixon K. Update on the current indications, practice and results of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in early central lung cancer (ECLC). Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2008, 5(1): 10-18.
28. Tsuchida T, Matsumoto Y, Imabayashi T, et al. Photodynamic therapy can be safely performed with talaporfin sodium as a day treatment for central-type early-stage lung cancer. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2022, 38: 102836.
29. Moghissi K, Dixon K, Thorpe JAC, et al. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) in early central lung cancer: a treatment option for patients ineligible for surgical resection. Thorax, 2007, 62(5): 391-395.
30. Yang DY, Lin YP, Xue C, et al. CT-guided percutaneous implantation of ¹²⁵I particles in treatment of early lung cancer. J Thorac Dis, 2020, 12(10): 5996-6009.
31. Wu C, Cao B, He G, et al. Stereotactic ablative brachytherapy versus percutaneous microwave ablation for early-stage non-small cell lung cancer: a multicenter retrospective study. BMC Cancer, 2024, 24(1): 304.
32. Chen E, Wang J, Zhang H, et al. Analysis of the efficacy and safety of iodine-125 seeds implantation in the treatment of patients with inoperable early-stage non-small cell lung cancer. J Contemp Brachytherapy, 2021 13(3): 347-357.
33. Latifi A, Roumeliotis M, Quirk S, et al. Brachytherapy seed placement by robotic bronchoscopy with cone beam computed tomography guidance for peripheral lung cancer: a human cadaveric feasibility pilot. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, 2025, 122(2): 392-398.
34. Harris K, Puchalski J, Sterman D. Recent advances in bronchoscopic treatment of peripheral lung cancers. Chest, 2017, 151(3): 674-685.
35. Zhong C, Chen E, Su Z, et al. Safety and efficacy of a novel transbronchial radiofrequency ablation system for lung tumours: one year follow-up from the first multi-centre large-scale clinical trial (BRONC-RFII). Respirology, 2025, 30(1): 51-61.
36. Xie F, Zheng X, Xiao B, et al. Navigation bronchoscopy-guided radiofrequency ablation for nonsurgical peripheral pulmonary tumors. Respiration, 2017, 94(3): 293-298.
37. Jiang N, Zhang L, Hao Y, et al. Combination of electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy-guided microwave ablation and thoracoscopic resection: an alternative for treatment of multiple pulmonary nodules. Thorac Cancer, 2020, 11(6): 1728-1733.
38. Chen KC, Lee JM. Photodynamic therapeutic ablation for peripheral pulmonary malignancy via electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy localization in a hybrid operating room (OR): a pioneering study. J Thorac Dis, 2018, 10(s6): S725-S730.
39. Zhang Q, Zheng K, Gu X, et al. Photodynamic therapy for primary tracheobronchial malignancy in Northwestern China. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther, 2022, 37: 102701.
40. Akulian JA, Molena D, Wahidi MM, et al. A direct comparative study of bronchoscopic navigation planning platforms for peripheral lung navigation: the ATLAS study. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol, 2022, 29(3): 171-178.
41. De Leon H, Royalty K, Mingione L, et al. Device safety assessment of bronchoscopic microwave ablation of normal swine peripheral lung using robotic-assisted bronchoscopy. Int J Hyperthermia, 2023, 40(1): 2187743.
42. Gruionu LG, Udri?toiu AL, Iacob AV, et al. Feasibility of a lung airway navigation system using fiber-Bragg shape sensing and artificial intelligence for early diagnosis of lung cancer. PLoS One, 2022, 17(12): e0277938.
43. Wu Y, Zhao S, Qi S, et al. Two-stage contextual transformer-based convolutional neural network for airway extraction from CT images. Artif Intell Med, 2023, 143: 102637.
44. Yuan Y, Tan W, Xu L, et al. An end-to-end multi-scale airway segmentation framework based on pulmonary CT image. Phys Med Biol, 2024, 69(11): 115027.
45. Yan S, Li Y, Pan L, et al. The application of artificial intelligence for rapid on-site evaluation during flexible bronchoscopy. Front Oncol, 2024, 14: 1360831.
46. Chen J, Zhang C, Xie J, et al. Automatic lung cancer subtyping using rapid on-site evaluation slides and serum biological markers. Respir Res, 2024, 25(1): 391.
47. Tondo P, Palmiotti GA, D'Alagni G, et al. Reliability of rapid on-site evaluation achieved by remote sharing systems (E-ROSE) and AI algorithms (AI-ROSE) compared with the gold standard in the diagnosis of lung cancer. Respirology, 2025: resp. 70104.
48. Thiboutot J, Yarmus LB, Maldonado F, et al. Identifying clinical research priorities in interventional pulmonary: an interventional pulmonology outcomes group (IPOG) working group report. Ann Am Thorac Soc, 2025, 22(9): 1281-1286.
49. Piro R, Fontana M, Casalini E, et al. Cone beam CT augmented fluoroscopy allows safe and efficient diagnosis of a difficult lung nodule. BMC Pulm Med, 2021, 21(1): 327.
50. Xu Y, Liu Q, Guo C, et al. A novel technique for microwave ablation of malignant pulmonary nodules: electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy with real-time digital subtraction angiography and computed tomography imaging guidance. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 2025, 67(3): ezaf063.
51. Kohno M, Hashimoto R, Oiwa K, et al. Initial experience with transbronchial cryoablation as a novel local treatment for malignant peripheral lung lesions. BMJ Open Respir Res, 2018, 5(1): e000315.

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