Application and research progress of mandibular distraction osteogenesis in craniofacial microsomia_Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery

Authors：

LI Lei ,  ZHANG Zhiyong

Department of Comprehensive Plastic Surgery, Plastic Surgery Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100144, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

ZHANG Zhiyong, Email: zhangzyRyan@163.com

Keywords：

Craniofacial microsomia; mandible; distraction osteogenesis

DOI：

10.7507/1002-1892.202510013

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Objective To review the application and research progress of mandibular distraction osteogenesis (MDO) in the treatment of craniofacial microsomia (CFM). Methods Recent domestic and international literature on MDO for CFM was extensively reviewed, with systematic summarization of its indications, device development, key technical points of MDO, complication management, digital surgical applications, biological enhancement strategies, and controversies regarding early intervention. Results MDO stimulates new bone formation through the “tension-stress” principle, serving as an effective method to elongate the mandible in CFM patients and early improve airway and occlusal functions. Digital technology has enhanced its precision, while biological strategies show potential for optimizing osteogenesis. However, challenges such as postoperative relapse and the long-term efficacy of early intervention remain. Conclusion MDO is a core component of the sequential treatment for CFM. Future efforts should focus on intelligent technologies and high-quality clinical studies to optimize individualized treatment plans and improve long-term stability.

1.	Huh J, Park JS, Sodnom-Ish B, et al. Growth characteristics and classification systems of hemifacial microsomia: a literature review. Maxillofac Plast Reconstr Surg, 2024, 46(1): 18. doi: 10.1186/s40902-024-00427-8.
2.	López DF, Acosta DM, Rivera DA, et al. Hemifacial microsomia: treatment alternatives-a systematic review of literature. J Clin Pediatr Dent, 2022, 46(5): 15-30.
3.	Li X, Chen L, Zhang Z. Changes of functional units in type ⅡA craniofacial microsomia before puberty-a preliminary computed tomography study. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2025, 126(4): 102111. doi: 10.1016/j.jormas.2024.102111.
4.	Liu W, Xu X, Zhao S, et al. Mandibular distraction osteogenesis first for children with severe unilateral hemifacial microsomia: Treatment strategy and outcomes. J Craniofac Surg, 2022, 33(2): 485-490.
5.	Ma LK, Zhang ZY, Tang XJ, et al. Analysis of obstructive sleep apnoea in craniofacial microsomia based on polysomnography. Cleft Palate Craniofac J, 2025, 62(4): 568-573.
6.	Renkema RW, ERN CRANIO Working Group on Craniofacial Microsomia. European Guideline Craniofacial Microsomia. J Craniofac Surg, 2020, 31 Suppl 8: 2385-2484.
7.	王旭東, 朱敏. 第一二鰓弓綜合征口腔頜面畸形的序列治療經驗. 中華口腔醫學雜志, 2023, 58(8): 781-790.
8.	Sugar A, Evans P, Bartlett S, et al. Virtual planning for corrections of hemifacial microsomia. Innov Surg Sci, 2023, 8(3): 159-183.
9.	Konofaos P, Wallace RD. Distraction osteogenesis in craniofacial surgery: Past, present, and future. J Craniofac Surg, 2021, 32(Suppl 3): 1221-1228.
10.	Runyan CM, Gabrick KS. Biology of bone formation, fracture healing, and distraction osteogenesis. J Craniofac Surg, 2017, 28(5): 1380-1389.
11.	Caron CJ, Pluijmers BI, Joosten KF, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea in craniofacial microsomia: a systematic review. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2015, 44(5): 592-598.
12.	Pourtaheri N, Wang DZ, Susarla SM, et al. Effects of unilateral vertical mandibular distraction osteogenesis on airway anatomy in children with hemifacial microsomia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2017, 45(12): 2041-2045.
13.	Peng QL, Zhang ZY, Tang XJ, et al. The influences of distraction osteogenesis therapy on airway morphology in patients with craniofacial microsomia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2021, 49(6): 443-448.
14.	Caron CJJM, Pluijmers BI, Maas BDPJ, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea in craniofacial microsomia: analysis of 755 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2017, 46(10): 1330-1337.
15.	Ma LK, Zhang ZY, Tang XJ, et al. Respiratory outcome of mandibular distraction osteogenesis on obstructive sleep apnea in craniofacial microsomia: A retrospective study. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2023, 51(6): 355-359.
16.	中華醫學會整形外科學分會顱面短小畸形-下頜骨畸形臨床診療指南制訂工作組. 顱面短小畸形-下頜骨畸形臨床診療指南 (2025版). 中華整形外科雜志, 2025, 41(5): 447-462.
17.	Str?mland K, Miller M, Sj?green L, et al. Oculo-auriculo-vertebral spectrum: associated anomalies, functional deficits and possible developmental risk factors. Am J Med Genet A, 2007, 143A(12): 1317-1325.
18.	Breik O, Umapathysivam K, Tivey D, et al. Feeding and reflux in children after mandibular distraction osteogenesis for micrognathia: A systematic review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol, 2016, 85: 128-135.
19.	Caron CJJM, Pluijmers BI, Joosten KFM, et al. Feeding difficulties in craniofacial microsomia: A multicenter retrospective analysis of 755 patients. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2018, 46(10): 1777-1782.
20.	Ascen?o AS, Balbinot P, Junior IM, et al. Mandibular distraction in hemifacial microsomia is not a permanent treatment: a long-term evaluation. J Craniofac Surg, 2014, 25(2): 352-354.
21.	El Hadidi YN, Askar MG. The stress concentration and biomechanical properties of the intraoral distractors and the extraoral distractors used in treatment of hemifacial microsomia patients: A simulation finite element analysis study. J Craniofac Surg, 2021, 32(8): 2621-2625.
22.	Paes EC, Bittermann GKP, Bittermann D, et al. Long-term results of mandibular distraction osteogenesis with a resorbable device in infants with robin sequence: Effects on developing molars and mandibular growth. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2016, 137(2): 375e-385e.
23.	Hatefi S, Hatefi K, Le Roux F, et al. Review of automatic continuous distraction osteogenesis devices for mandibular reconstruction applications. Biomed Eng Online, 2020, 19(1): 17. doi: 10.1186/s12938-020-00761-8.
24.	Hatefi S, Alizargar J, Yihun Y, et al. Hybrid distractor for continuous mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Bioengineering (Basel), 2022, 9(12): 732. doi: 10.3390/bioengineering9120732.
25.	Ayoub AF, Richardson W, Barbenel JC. Mandibular elongation by automatic distraction osteogenesis: the first application in humans. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2005, 43(4): 324-328.
26.	Shakir S, Bartlett SP. Modern mandibular distraction applications in hemifacial microsomia. Clin Plast Surg, 2021, 48(3): 375-389.
27.	Kaban LB, Seldin EB, Kikinis R, et al. Clinical application of curvilinear distraction osteogenesis for correction of mandibular deformities. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2009, 67(5): 996-1008.
28.	Resnick CM. Precise osteotomies for mandibular distraction in infants with Robin sequence using virtual surgical planning. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2018, 47(1): 35-43.
29.	Han W, Kim BS, Zhang Z, et al. Changes of masseter muscle after mandible distraction osteogenesis in patients with Hemifacial microsomia: a retrospective study. Front Pediatr, 2024, 12: 1453270. doi: 10.3389/fped.2024.1453270.
30.	Hollier LH, Higuera S, Stal S, et al. Distraction rate and latency: factors in the outcome of pediatric mandibular distraction. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2006, 117(7): 2333-2336.
31.	Mofid MM, Manson PN, Robertson BC, et al. Craniofacial distraction osteogenesis: a review of 3278 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2001, 108(5): 1103-1114.
32.	Troulis MJ, Glowacki J, Perrott DH, et al. Effects of latency and rate on bone formation in a porcine mandibular distraction model. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2000, 58(5): 507-513.
33.	Ow ATC, Cheung LK. Meta-analysis of mandibular distraction osteogenesis: clinical applications and functional outcomes. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2008, 121(3): 54e-69e.
34.	Wiltfang J, Kessler P, Merten HA, et al. Continuous and intermittent bone distraction using a microhydraulic cylinder: an experimental study in minipigs. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2001, 39(1): 2-7.
35.	Li G, Simpson AH, Kenwright J, et al. Effect of lengthening rate on angiogenesis during distraction osteogenesis. J Orthop Res, 1999, 17(3): 362-367.
36.	Fu R, Feng Y, Bertrand D, et al. Enhancing the efficiency of distraction osteogenesis through rate-varying distraction: A computational study. Int J Mol Sci, 2021, 22(21): 11734. doi: 10.3390/ijms222111734.
37.	Liu Q, Liu Z, Guo H, et al. The progress in quantitative evaluation of callus during distraction osteogenesis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord, 2022, 23(1): 490. doi: 10.1186/s12891-022-05458-8.
38.	Master DL, Hanson PR, Gosain AK. Complications of mandibular distraction osteogenesis. J Craniofac Surg, 2010, 21(5): 1565-1570.
39.	Wang X, Feng S, Tang X, et al. Incidents of mandibular distraction osteogenesis for hemifacial microsomia. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2018, 142(4): 1002-1008.
40.	Shu KY, Liu W, Zhao JL, et al. Condylar resorption post mandibular distraction osteogenesis in craniofacial microsomia: A retrospective study. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2023, 51(11): 675-681.
41.	Civelek B, Karamursel S, Ozdil K, et al. A potential complication with an extraoral distractor for mandible lengthening: facial nerve paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2006, 117(2): 698-699.
42.	Shetye PR, Warren SM, Brown D, et al. Documentation of the incidents associated with mandibular distraction: introduction of a new stratification system. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2009, 123(2): 627-634.
43.	Li X, Zhang Z, Tang X, et al. Bone density of the condyle of children with craniofacial microsomia and its correlation with condylar resorption after mandible distraction osteogenesis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J, 2024, 61(8): 1266-1274.
44.	Shakir S, Naran S, Lowe KM, et al. Balancing distraction forces in the mandible: Newton’s third law of distraction. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open, 2018, 6(9): e1856. doi: 10.1097/GOX.0000000000001856.
45.	Shih L, Davis MJ, Sequitin J, et al. Airway obstruction management with mandibular distraction and matthews device in Pruzansky Ⅲ craniofacial microsomia. J Craniofac Surg, 2020, 31(3): e277-e280.
46.	Hu KG, Aral A, Rancu A, et al. Computerized surgical planning for mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Semin Plast Surg, 2024, 38(3): 234-241.
47.	d'Hauthuille C, Taha F, Devauchelle B, et al. Comparison of two computer-assisted surgery techniques to guide a mandibular distraction osteogenesis procedure. Technical note. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2005, 34(2): 197-201.
48.	Cai EZ, Yee TH, Gao Y, et al. Mixed reality guided advancement osteotomies in congenital craniofacial malformations. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg, 2024, 98: 100-102.
49.	Qu M, Hou Y, Xu Y, et al. Precise positioning of an intraoral distractor using augmented reality in patients with hemifacial microsomia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2015, 43(1): 106-112.
50.	Zhang Z, Zhao Z, Han W, et al. Accuracy and safety of robotic navigation-assisted distraction osteogenesis for hemifacial microsomia. Front Pediatr, 2023, 11: 1158078. doi: 10.3389/fped.2023.1158078.
51.	Mohaghegh S, Alirezaei F, Ahmadi N, et al. Application of chemical factors for acceleration of consolidation phase of the distraction osteogenesis: a scoping review. Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2023, 27(4): 559-579.
52.	Shah HN, Jones RE, Borrelli MR, et al. Craniofacial and long bone development in the context of distraction osteogenesis. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2021, 147(1): 54e-65e.
53.	Han JJ, Yang HJ, Hwang SJ. Enhanced bone regeneration by bone morphogenetic protein-2 after pretreatment with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound in distraction osteogenesis. Tissue Eng Regen Med, 2022, 19(4): 871-886.
54.	Momeni A, Rapp S, Donneys A, et al. Clinical use of deferoxamine in distraction osteogenesis of irradiated bone. J Craniofac Surg, 2016, 27(4): 880-882.
55.	Donneys A, Deshpande SS, Tchanque-Fossuo CN, et al. Deferoxamine expedites consolidation during mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Bone, 2013, 55(2): 384-390.
56.	Alkaisi A, Ismail AR, Mutum SS, et al. Transplantation of human dental pulp stem cells: enhance bone consolidation in mandibular distraction osteogenesis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2013, 71(10): 1758.e1-13. doi: 10.1016/j.joms.2013.05.016.
57.	El Kassaby M, El Kader KA, Khamis N, et al. The effect of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells application on distracted bone quality during rapid rate of distraction osteogenesis. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr, 2018, 11(3): 192-198.
58.	Kocyigit ID, Coskunses FM, Pala E, et al. A comparison of the low-level laser versus low intensity pulsed ultrasound on new bone formed through distraction osteogenesis. Photomed Laser Surg, 2012, 30(8): 438-443.
59.	Atiba PM, Omotoso BR, Madaree A, et al. Hemifacial microsomia: a scoping review on progressive facial asymmetry due to mandibular deformity. Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2024, 28(4): 1441-1455.
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61.	Ko EW, Chen PK, Lo LJ. Comparison of the adult three-dimensional craniofacial features of patients with unilateral craniofacial microsomia with and without early mandible distraction. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2017, 46(7): 811-818.
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63.	Pluijmers BI, Caron CJJM, van de Lande LS, et al. Surgical correction of craniofacial microsomia: Evaluation of interventions in 565 patients at three major craniofacial units. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2019, 143(5): 1467-1476.
64.	Shetye PR, Grayson BH, McCarthy JG. Longitudinal skeletal growth analysis of mandibular asymmetry in unoperated patients with unilateral craniofacial microsomia (UCFM). Cleft Palate Craniofac J, 2023, 60(1): 69-74.
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66.	Li C, Liu A, Liu W, et al. Optimal age for mandibular distraction osteogenesis in craniofacial microsomia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2025, 126(4S): 102255. doi: 10.1016/j.jormas.2025.102255.

1. Huh J, Park JS, Sodnom-Ish B, et al. Growth characteristics and classification systems of hemifacial microsomia: a literature review. Maxillofac Plast Reconstr Surg, 2024, 46(1): 18. doi: 10.1186/s40902-024-00427-8.
2. López DF, Acosta DM, Rivera DA, et al. Hemifacial microsomia: treatment alternatives-a systematic review of literature. J Clin Pediatr Dent, 2022, 46(5): 15-30.
3. Li X, Chen L, Zhang Z. Changes of functional units in type ⅡA craniofacial microsomia before puberty-a preliminary computed tomography study. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2025, 126(4): 102111. doi: 10.1016/j.jormas.2024.102111.
4. Liu W, Xu X, Zhao S, et al. Mandibular distraction osteogenesis first for children with severe unilateral hemifacial microsomia: Treatment strategy and outcomes. J Craniofac Surg, 2022, 33(2): 485-490.
5. Ma LK, Zhang ZY, Tang XJ, et al. Analysis of obstructive sleep apnoea in craniofacial microsomia based on polysomnography. Cleft Palate Craniofac J, 2025, 62(4): 568-573.
6. Renkema RW, ERN CRANIO Working Group on Craniofacial Microsomia. European Guideline Craniofacial Microsomia. J Craniofac Surg, 2020, 31 Suppl 8: 2385-2484.
7. 王旭東, 朱敏. 第一二鰓弓綜合征口腔頜面畸形的序列治療經驗. 中華口腔醫學雜志, 2023, 58(8): 781-790.
8. Sugar A, Evans P, Bartlett S, et al. Virtual planning for corrections of hemifacial microsomia. Innov Surg Sci, 2023, 8(3): 159-183.
9. Konofaos P, Wallace RD. Distraction osteogenesis in craniofacial surgery: Past, present, and future. J Craniofac Surg, 2021, 32(Suppl 3): 1221-1228.
10. Runyan CM, Gabrick KS. Biology of bone formation, fracture healing, and distraction osteogenesis. J Craniofac Surg, 2017, 28(5): 1380-1389.
11. Caron CJ, Pluijmers BI, Joosten KF, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea in craniofacial microsomia: a systematic review. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2015, 44(5): 592-598.
12. Pourtaheri N, Wang DZ, Susarla SM, et al. Effects of unilateral vertical mandibular distraction osteogenesis on airway anatomy in children with hemifacial microsomia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2017, 45(12): 2041-2045.
13. Peng QL, Zhang ZY, Tang XJ, et al. The influences of distraction osteogenesis therapy on airway morphology in patients with craniofacial microsomia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2021, 49(6): 443-448.
14. Caron CJJM, Pluijmers BI, Maas BDPJ, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea in craniofacial microsomia: analysis of 755 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2017, 46(10): 1330-1337.
15. Ma LK, Zhang ZY, Tang XJ, et al. Respiratory outcome of mandibular distraction osteogenesis on obstructive sleep apnea in craniofacial microsomia: A retrospective study. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2023, 51(6): 355-359.
16. 中華醫學會整形外科學分會顱面短小畸形-下頜骨畸形臨床診療指南制訂工作組. 顱面短小畸形-下頜骨畸形臨床診療指南 (2025版). 中華整形外科雜志, 2025, 41(5): 447-462.
17. Str?mland K, Miller M, Sj?green L, et al. Oculo-auriculo-vertebral spectrum: associated anomalies, functional deficits and possible developmental risk factors. Am J Med Genet A, 2007, 143A(12): 1317-1325.
18. Breik O, Umapathysivam K, Tivey D, et al. Feeding and reflux in children after mandibular distraction osteogenesis for micrognathia: A systematic review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol, 2016, 85: 128-135.
19. Caron CJJM, Pluijmers BI, Joosten KFM, et al. Feeding difficulties in craniofacial microsomia: A multicenter retrospective analysis of 755 patients. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2018, 46(10): 1777-1782.
20. Ascen?o AS, Balbinot P, Junior IM, et al. Mandibular distraction in hemifacial microsomia is not a permanent treatment: a long-term evaluation. J Craniofac Surg, 2014, 25(2): 352-354.
21. El Hadidi YN, Askar MG. The stress concentration and biomechanical properties of the intraoral distractors and the extraoral distractors used in treatment of hemifacial microsomia patients: A simulation finite element analysis study. J Craniofac Surg, 2021, 32(8): 2621-2625.
22. Paes EC, Bittermann GKP, Bittermann D, et al. Long-term results of mandibular distraction osteogenesis with a resorbable device in infants with robin sequence: Effects on developing molars and mandibular growth. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2016, 137(2): 375e-385e.
23. Hatefi S, Hatefi K, Le Roux F, et al. Review of automatic continuous distraction osteogenesis devices for mandibular reconstruction applications. Biomed Eng Online, 2020, 19(1): 17. doi: 10.1186/s12938-020-00761-8.
24. Hatefi S, Alizargar J, Yihun Y, et al. Hybrid distractor for continuous mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Bioengineering (Basel), 2022, 9(12): 732. doi: 10.3390/bioengineering9120732.
25. Ayoub AF, Richardson W, Barbenel JC. Mandibular elongation by automatic distraction osteogenesis: the first application in humans. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2005, 43(4): 324-328.
26. Shakir S, Bartlett SP. Modern mandibular distraction applications in hemifacial microsomia. Clin Plast Surg, 2021, 48(3): 375-389.
27. Kaban LB, Seldin EB, Kikinis R, et al. Clinical application of curvilinear distraction osteogenesis for correction of mandibular deformities. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2009, 67(5): 996-1008.
28. Resnick CM. Precise osteotomies for mandibular distraction in infants with Robin sequence using virtual surgical planning. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2018, 47(1): 35-43.
29. Han W, Kim BS, Zhang Z, et al. Changes of masseter muscle after mandible distraction osteogenesis in patients with Hemifacial microsomia: a retrospective study. Front Pediatr, 2024, 12: 1453270. doi: 10.3389/fped.2024.1453270.
30. Hollier LH, Higuera S, Stal S, et al. Distraction rate and latency: factors in the outcome of pediatric mandibular distraction. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2006, 117(7): 2333-2336.
31. Mofid MM, Manson PN, Robertson BC, et al. Craniofacial distraction osteogenesis: a review of 3278 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2001, 108(5): 1103-1114.
32. Troulis MJ, Glowacki J, Perrott DH, et al. Effects of latency and rate on bone formation in a porcine mandibular distraction model. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2000, 58(5): 507-513.
33. Ow ATC, Cheung LK. Meta-analysis of mandibular distraction osteogenesis: clinical applications and functional outcomes. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2008, 121(3): 54e-69e.
34. Wiltfang J, Kessler P, Merten HA, et al. Continuous and intermittent bone distraction using a microhydraulic cylinder: an experimental study in minipigs. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2001, 39(1): 2-7.
35. Li G, Simpson AH, Kenwright J, et al. Effect of lengthening rate on angiogenesis during distraction osteogenesis. J Orthop Res, 1999, 17(3): 362-367.
36. Fu R, Feng Y, Bertrand D, et al. Enhancing the efficiency of distraction osteogenesis through rate-varying distraction: A computational study. Int J Mol Sci, 2021, 22(21): 11734. doi: 10.3390/ijms222111734.
37. Liu Q, Liu Z, Guo H, et al. The progress in quantitative evaluation of callus during distraction osteogenesis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord, 2022, 23(1): 490. doi: 10.1186/s12891-022-05458-8.
38. Master DL, Hanson PR, Gosain AK. Complications of mandibular distraction osteogenesis. J Craniofac Surg, 2010, 21(5): 1565-1570.
39. Wang X, Feng S, Tang X, et al. Incidents of mandibular distraction osteogenesis for hemifacial microsomia. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2018, 142(4): 1002-1008.
40. Shu KY, Liu W, Zhao JL, et al. Condylar resorption post mandibular distraction osteogenesis in craniofacial microsomia: A retrospective study. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2023, 51(11): 675-681.
41. Civelek B, Karamursel S, Ozdil K, et al. A potential complication with an extraoral distractor for mandible lengthening: facial nerve paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2006, 117(2): 698-699.
42. Shetye PR, Warren SM, Brown D, et al. Documentation of the incidents associated with mandibular distraction: introduction of a new stratification system. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2009, 123(2): 627-634.
43. Li X, Zhang Z, Tang X, et al. Bone density of the condyle of children with craniofacial microsomia and its correlation with condylar resorption after mandible distraction osteogenesis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J, 2024, 61(8): 1266-1274.
44. Shakir S, Naran S, Lowe KM, et al. Balancing distraction forces in the mandible: Newton’s third law of distraction. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open, 2018, 6(9): e1856. doi: 10.1097/GOX.0000000000001856.
45. Shih L, Davis MJ, Sequitin J, et al. Airway obstruction management with mandibular distraction and matthews device in Pruzansky Ⅲ craniofacial microsomia. J Craniofac Surg, 2020, 31(3): e277-e280.
46. Hu KG, Aral A, Rancu A, et al. Computerized surgical planning for mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Semin Plast Surg, 2024, 38(3): 234-241.
47. d'Hauthuille C, Taha F, Devauchelle B, et al. Comparison of two computer-assisted surgery techniques to guide a mandibular distraction osteogenesis procedure. Technical note. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2005, 34(2): 197-201.
48. Cai EZ, Yee TH, Gao Y, et al. Mixed reality guided advancement osteotomies in congenital craniofacial malformations. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg, 2024, 98: 100-102.
49. Qu M, Hou Y, Xu Y, et al. Precise positioning of an intraoral distractor using augmented reality in patients with hemifacial microsomia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg, 2015, 43(1): 106-112.
50. Zhang Z, Zhao Z, Han W, et al. Accuracy and safety of robotic navigation-assisted distraction osteogenesis for hemifacial microsomia. Front Pediatr, 2023, 11: 1158078. doi: 10.3389/fped.2023.1158078.
51. Mohaghegh S, Alirezaei F, Ahmadi N, et al. Application of chemical factors for acceleration of consolidation phase of the distraction osteogenesis: a scoping review. Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2023, 27(4): 559-579.
52. Shah HN, Jones RE, Borrelli MR, et al. Craniofacial and long bone development in the context of distraction osteogenesis. Plast Reconstr Surg, 2021, 147(1): 54e-65e.
53. Han JJ, Yang HJ, Hwang SJ. Enhanced bone regeneration by bone morphogenetic protein-2 after pretreatment with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound in distraction osteogenesis. Tissue Eng Regen Med, 2022, 19(4): 871-886.
54. Momeni A, Rapp S, Donneys A, et al. Clinical use of deferoxamine in distraction osteogenesis of irradiated bone. J Craniofac Surg, 2016, 27(4): 880-882.
55. Donneys A, Deshpande SS, Tchanque-Fossuo CN, et al. Deferoxamine expedites consolidation during mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Bone, 2013, 55(2): 384-390.
56. Alkaisi A, Ismail AR, Mutum SS, et al. Transplantation of human dental pulp stem cells: enhance bone consolidation in mandibular distraction osteogenesis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 2013, 71(10): 1758.e1-13. doi: 10.1016/j.joms.2013.05.016.
57. El Kassaby M, El Kader KA, Khamis N, et al. The effect of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells application on distracted bone quality during rapid rate of distraction osteogenesis. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr, 2018, 11(3): 192-198.
58. Kocyigit ID, Coskunses FM, Pala E, et al. A comparison of the low-level laser versus low intensity pulsed ultrasound on new bone formed through distraction osteogenesis. Photomed Laser Surg, 2012, 30(8): 438-443.
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